Did You Know? A breast cancer cell line known as MCF-7 is used by researchers around the world.  The name comes from the Michigan Cancer Foundation where the cell line was first established in 1973 after isolating the cells from Sister Catherine Frances, a Catholic nun.  Aside from use in breast cancer research, the cell line has also proven to be valuable in testing for estrogenic activity.  Cells can be exposed to various chemicals and their rate of multiplication assessed.  Compounds with estrogenic activity trigger more rapid multiplication, the extent of which can be monitored by isolating and quantifying the amount of DNA in the newly formed cells. Sigmota, a town in Sweden, holds an “Annual Pee Outside Day.”  The purpose of this is to save on water that is normally used to flush toilets.  Peeing outside for one day cuts water use by 50% for that day.  Citizens are urged to be discreet and not make use of windows.  Placing a brick inside the holding tank of a flush toilet can also lead to significant water savings with no loss of flushing effectiveness.  This is more convenient than scampering outside, especially for the 50% of the population for which tree and walls are not an alternative to the toilet. Orange and red lightening above Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela produce a spectacular phenomenon that is visible for more than 500 km. This phenomenon commences one hour after dawn and lasts for 10 hours. Unlike normal thunderstorms, this thunderstorm always occurs in the same place and can be observed 160 nights per year. The origin of the Catatumbo Lightning is unknown. However the Wari, an indigenous group native to the area, believe that the origin is due to “an incredible amount of fireflies that gathered there to pay tribute to the parents of creation.” Generally, many find this legend to be an unacceptable explanation; hence many scientists like Melchor Centeno, Andrew Zavrotsky, Nelson Falcón have attempted to resolve this enigma. However most of their theories proved to be unsuccessful thus research is still being conducted in order to obtain conclusive scientific explanations, but for now the most acceptable theory proposes that the winds from the Andes Mountains collide with ionized gases, such as methane, causing them to rise up and then creating electrical charge. In January 2010 the lightning disappeared unawares but then reappeared in April 2010. Many scientists have proposed that this disruption was caused by climate change, deforestation and the development of agriculture around Lake Maracaibo. These speculations have not yet been proven and the perplexity behind the Catatumbo Lightning phenomenon for now continues to be a mystery. Victims of Alzheimer's disease experience a continuous degeneration of nerve cells. Most of the nerve cells affected are responsible for releasing acetylcholine, the neurotransmitter believed to be mainly responsible for memory and learning. In order to prevent the loss of acetylcholine, galantamine, a competitive and reversible cholinesterase inhibitor is used as a medication. Galantamine reduces the activity of the enzyme acetylcholinesterase thus preventing the degradation of acetylcholine and maintaining an increased level of this neurotransmitter in the brain. Studies have shown a slowing of memory loss but galantamine is not a cure for  Alzheimer's! Experts believe that the polar bears are traveling south to escape the effects of global warming while the grizzly bears are moving northward thus leading to the creation of a new species: grizzly-polar bear hybrid. DNA samples taken from the hybrid that Jim Martell shot and killed in 2006 proved the first hybrid case in the wild. The hybrid is similar in appearance to its parents. It is smaller than a polar bear but larger than a grizzly bear. Furthermore, the hybrids' hair and feet are a blend of both. However, the hybrid has not been given an official name, suggestions include: the Grolar Bear, the Pizzly Bear or the Nanulak. Many pharmacologists and scientists work with “medicine men” in order to discover drugs that originate from rainforest plants. For example, an African tribe introduced the world to the Madagascar periwinkle, which increased the survival rate for children with leukemia from 20 per cent to 80 per cent. South American natives have long used the Pau d'arco tree to treat pain, arthritis and boils and the napthaquinones found in various extracts are now being studied for their antibacterial, antiviral and antifungal effects.  Regrettably, less than one percent of the rainforest plants have been examined and as the rainforest is disappearing potentially valuable drugs are being lost. The term “aromatherapy” was first coined in 1937 by Rene-Maurice Gattefosse, a French chemist, whose badly burned arm was supposedly miraculously cured by the use of lavender oil.  Jean Valnet decided to further investigate the medicinal benefits of essential oils by applying them to soldiers' wounds during World War II. Today, essential oils are still used for their healing properties and as a form of therapy with claims such as eucalyptus aiding in the prevention of colds and flu while a blend of ylang ylang with grapefruit relieving stress.  Scientific evidence for such claims is very thin. First adopted in Australia in 1988, polymer banknotes have now become increasingly popular due to their improved security against counterfeiting and their enhanced durability. Many countries have circulating plastic bills and seven countries in the world have fully converted from paper bills to polymer banknotes. Polymer banknotes are made from bi-axially oriented polypropylene (BOPP): a polymer made from repeating units of propylene, capable of being stretched in two directions. Polypropylene is resistant to wear and tear and its surface allows for excellent printing, making it an ideal candidate for the production of banknotes. Though more expensive to produce, plastic bills last at least twice as long as opposed to their paper counterparts and can be recycled at the end of their distribution cycle. Condoms are not used often enough, leading to more cases of STDs and unplanned pregnancies. But now a revolutionary new design may be able to encourage safer sex. A British biotechnology firm has developed an innovative product popularly known as the “Viagra Condom,” named after the drug with which it has no association. Known clinically as CSD500, the condom is lined with a vasodilating gel to increase blood flow and help maintain erections. The Viagra Condom isn't meant for people with erectile dysfunction; its real purpose is to encourage men to use condoms more often. Firmer erections also prevent condoms from slipping off and causing accidents. Though still waiting for regulatory approval, this condom is projected to reach the market in the near future. Sickle cell anemia is a recessive genetic disorder in which the body's red blood cells assume an abnormal crescent shape inhibiting their ability to carry oxygen effectively. Natural selection continuously favours individuals that are better fitted to their environment; so it would make sense that the less favoured sickle cell gene should slowly disappear. However, in tropical regions where malaria is widespread, sickle cell anemia is still common, affecting 1-2% of the population. Moreover, as much as 40% of specific regional populations may carry one of the two alleles causing sickle-cell anemia. Turns out, there is an advantage in carrying only one single sickle-cell gene: heterozygous individuals, though not immune to malaria, are more tolerant of malaria infection. If infected, they will also show less severe symptoms and the infection is less likely to be fatal. Voila the silver lining! Our brains are pretty smart! A recent study conducted by researchers at the University of Michigan revealed that an MRI scan can detect the likelihood of a smoker being able to quit smoking. The researchers had heavy smokers watch a series of commercials about quitting smoking while undergoing MRI scans. The scans of smokers who eventually managed to quit smoking or who smoked less in the following month showed more activity in the medial prefrontal cortex of the brain, a region thought to be predicative of behavioural change. These scans proved to be a better prediction of smokers’ future behaviour than their self assessment of the likelihood of success. An ice cream parlor recently developed a new ice cream flavor: vanilla lemon “Baby Gaga”, made from real human breast milk. Though breast milk has been known for its nutritious content and benefits to newborns, human breast milk ice cream isn’t any more beneficial than ice cream made from normal milk. Once human breast milk has been pasteurized and turned into ice cream, all the original nutritious components are likely to be destroyed. This newly developed ice cream flavor did not meet with regulatory approval due to complaints from the public and the risk of passing on viruses and bacteria unnecessarily. Chocolate may be about to get better, sweeter and even more irresistible.  Scientists have succeeded in sequencing the genome of the Criollo chocolate tree.  Due to susceptibility to diseases, cocoa trees normally give a low production of fine quality cocoa. However, following the genome sequencing, a number of genes have been identified, that once modified, may cause cocoa trees to become more resistant to infections.  “Analysis of the Criollo genome has also uncovered the genetic basis of pathways leading to the most important quality traits of chocolate — oil, flavonoid and terpene biosynthesis”, said the researchers.  With the genes of these production pathways sequenced, consumers can expect a larger production of fine quality chocolate to satisfy their sweet cravings. The fruit of the Synsepalum dulcificum plant has been dubbed ‘miracle berry’ for its amazing ability to make sour foods taste sweet when consumed.  This effect is due to miraculin, a glycoprotein found in the berry.  When eaten, miraculin binds to a specific sweet receptor on cells in our taste buds.  These receptors then become activated only when acid, found in sour foods, is present.  The acidity of sour foods is therefore ironically what allows you to taste sweetness.  Due to the strong binding of miraculin to taste receptor cells, this effect can last up to two hours! Why is chicken breast white and dark meat dark?  It all has to do with different kinds of muscle.  Dark meat is a result of the predominant presence of slow oxidative muscle fibers used for sustained activity by active muscles such as found in the legs and thighs.  These fibers have a continuous rich supply of oxygen and generate low levels of force over long periods of time.  They contain high levels of a protein called myoglobin that helps facilitate oxygen transport from the blood.  This iron-rich, red-pigmented protein, when cooked, turns into metmyoglobin and is what gives dark meat its color.  By contrast, fast glycolytic muscle fibers are mainly found in chicken breast and other muscle regions that are not used actively.  These muscle fibers lack myoglobin but are capable of generating a large force over a short time span. Bisphenol A (BPA) has been the subject of much recent controversy due to reports that it can cause birth defects, impaired sugar control as well as other health problems in rodents.  Bisphenol A is a synthetic organic compound that exhibits estrogenic effects.  Every year, over 22 billion tons are produced and used primarily to make plastics.  BPA can be found in baby bottles, food can linings, dental sealants and much more.  On September 23rd, 2010, Canada became the first country to officially declare bisphenol A as a toxic substance.  This is an administrative move that allows for future regulatory action should this be deemed necessary.  There are no current plans to restrict the use of BPA other than in the production of baby bottles. The first ever full genome sequencing of an individual human was completed in 2007 and cost roughly 100 million dollars. However, as big advances in biotechnology have been made in recent years by improving upon cost and efficiency to sequence the human genome, biotechnology companies now offer personal genome sequencing services to the general public. Individuals can now obtain their full genome, consisting of nucleotide bases which reflect upon hereditary information, for a much lower price of $20 000. With access to this information, individuals can learn more about their ancestry, predisposition to health conditions and potential responses to different drugs and foods. Among the treasures discovered during the famous 1922 archaeological excavation of King Tutankhamun’s tomb was a jar of honey.  Archaeologists tasted it (brave souls those archeoogists), and to their amazement, found it to be as sweet as, well, honey.  Due to its low water content and acidic pH, this bee regurgitation is one of the few foods that does not spoil.  The sticky goo starts out as flower nectar, containing about 60% water.  Bees add enzymes that break down the complex carbohydrates to simple sugars and then store the nectar in honeycombs where the water content is reduced to about 18% through evaporation.  Sweet chemistry! If you see a product label that lists “guar gum or cellulose gum” among its ingredients you would probably expect to chew rather than lick.  But these substances are critical to making a smooth-textured ice cream.  One of the biggest banes of ice cream lovers is the dreaded “heat shock” which occurs when ice cream is repeatedly removed from and put back into the freezer.  Each time a little melts and refreezes to form crystals which give the product a crunchy texture. The added gums absorb water and prevent it from refreezing into ice crystals.  Gums therefore provide the velvety texture that makes ice cream so appealing we eat enough of it every year to fill the Grand Canyon! We can now add the newest element to the periodic table.  It has been named Copernicium in honour of Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543), the Polish astronomer who first hypothesized that the Earth revolves around the Sun.  Don’t expect to have a bottle of it on a shelf though.  Copernicium does not occur in nature; it is made in the lab by bombarding lead-208 nuclei with zinc-70 nuclei and has only a fleeting existence.  The element has no practical use but its synthesis provides information that can improve our understanding of atomic structure. Alexander the Great was known to use aloe as a purgative after being taught about the plant’s effects by his tutor Aristotle.  Purgatives were highly valued at the time because it was believed that illness could be eliminated from the body by expelling the contents of the digestive tract.  Aloe juice can do this very effectively.  The juice can also be a mild remedy for skin disorders but this was not the main application in antiquity.  Today various unsubstantiated claims are made about the ability of aloe juice to cure digestive ailments. Thalidomide, prescribed for morning sickness, was responsible for about 10,000 cases of terrible birth deformities in the early 1960s.  Most of the affected babies were born with stunted arms or legs that looked like seal flippers.  The condition is termed “phocomelia” deriving from the Greek words for seal and limb.  While it must be avoided by pregnant women, thalidomide is now being used for the treatment of leprosy.  Unfortunately in developing countries that message has not been clearly transmitted and we have a new generation of babies affected by phocomelia. The Shetland Islands are famous for sheep and wool. But did you know that they are also home to the stormy petrel? This unusual bird, so-named because it was thought to appear before a storm, has a very high fat content. Fat of course is an excellent fuel and burns readily to produce carbon dioxide, water, heat and light. Islanders used to catch the creatures, dry them, fix their feet in clay and thread a wick through their beak. Then they would light the wick and burn the dried bird for illumination. The Danes did the same with the “Great Auk,” a bird that has since become extinct. They inserted a wick into the dead bird's belly and burned it. The less macabre were satisfied with burning whale oil. Aren't you glad electricity came along? Mention “Spanish Fly,” and people’s thoughts turn to carnal activities.  Actually, "Spanish Fly" is not a fly at all, but a beetle that produces a compound called cantharidin, an irritant of the uro-genital tract.  While it is not an aphrodisiac, it can produce an erection.  It can also pose a threat to human health.  But apparently not to the health of male pyrochroid beetles which dine on cantharide beetles.  Females of this species reject males which have not eaten cantharidin.  During the mating ritual, the male secretes a gooey substance which the female tastes.  Only if she tastes cantharidin does mating become a possibility.  A good example of chemical warfare and species survival.  The female will pass the cantharidin on to her eggs, which then are less appetizing to predators such as lady bugs.  If a baby’s urine has a sweetish smell, the baby may have a rare illness called the Maple syrup urine disease (MSUD), also called branched-chain ketoaciduria. MSUD is an inheritable metabolic disorder caused by deficiency in the enzyme that normally degrades branched-chain amino acids, leucine, isoleucine and valine, which are naturally found in protein-containing foods. It affects 1 in 180,000 newborns, which translates into roughly 2 babies a year in Canada. The lack of the degrading enzyme means that these amino acids and their toxic by-products accumulate in the blood and urine. Infants affected by this disorder may present with difficulty feeding, vomiting, lethargy, and other neurological symptoms. Patients with MSUD must monitor their diet and avoid foods containing these specific amino acids. Infants are born with innate reflexes that are meant to maximize their chances of survival. The Moro reflex, also known as the startle reflex, is one such primitive reflex wherein the baby stretches out its arms when it feels like it is falling or when it is startled by a loud noise. In human evolutionary past, the Moro reflex may have allowed the infant to cling onto its mother while she carried him around all day. One way to test this reflex is to hold the baby horizontally and let the head drop slightly. Absence of reflex may indicate damage to baby’s central nervous system or injury due to birth trauma such as fractured clavicle. Infantile reflexes usually disappear by three to four months of age. Farmers sometimes equip their dairy cows with pedometers?  It is well know that a cow in heat is more active, probably due to an evolutionary vestige.  When cows were breeding naturally in the plains, their activity increased during heat as they looked for a mate.  These days pedometers attached to the animal’s foot can accurately track the number of steps taken and therefore can gauge activity.  Cow pedometers are equipped with a transponder that sends information to a computer each time the cow enters the milking parlour, which is once every eight hours.  A farmer can look at the compiled data and determine when the cow is most active and when fertilization is likely to be most successful.  When the clergy in St Petersburg were not satisfied with the reforms of Peter the First (1672-1725), they claimed that a statue of the Virgin in the Troitski Cathedral was shedding tears.  Peter came to investigate and discovered small holes bored in the eyes and a little container of lamp oil behind each one.  The warmth coming from a candle softened the oil which then dripped out simulating tears.  Peter said "if the Virgin weeps lamp oil again, the priests' backs will weep with blood."  The icons did not weep any more. This sounds distasteful, but is worth remembering.  Believe it or not, vomit appears to be astonishingly effective at spreading viruses.  Investigators were called in when 52 people at a hotel function came down with fever, nausea, vomiting and diarrhea three days after a meal.  126 people had sat down at 6 tables and one lady got very sick.  The staff  quickly cleaned up the mess, but the damage was done.  More than 90% of people at the same table as the sick woman got sick themselves as did 70% of people at the adjacent table.  People who got sick seemed to have inhaled or swallowed the infectious agent which was Norwalk-like virus, brought in by the woman.  Just a single drop of material hitting a hard surface can produce an aerosol that can travel a long way.  The first scientific observation about breast cancer was made in 1896 when it was noted that the disease sometimes regressed if the ovaries were removed.  Eventually this connection was understood in terms of estrogen, the female hormone produced by the ovaries.  Some types of breast cancer cells are stimulated to divide by estrogen and therefore blocking this effect constitutes a form of treatment.  Many anti-estrogen drugs have been tried with various degrees of effectiveness.  Tamoxifen is perhaps the best known of these medications.  Prostate cancer cells are also known to be stimulated by hormones, in this case by androgens, the male sex hormones which are produced mostly in the testes.  It has long been known that eunuchs do not develop prostate cancer because removal of the testes lowers the level of male hormones in the blood.  Indeed, prostate cancer is sometimes treated by surgical removal of the testes.  Drugs known as anti-androgens constitute the pharmaceutical treatment of this disease. The first drug that was found to be capable of blocking the skeletal neuromuscular junction (a space between motor nerve and muscle where muscle stimulation by the nerve takes place) was curare, which the native hunters of the Amazon in South America used to paralyze game. The drug tubocurarine was ultimately purified and introduced into clinical practice in the early 1940s. Although tubocurarine is considered to be the prototype agent in this class, it has largely been replaced by other agents due to side effects. The neuromuscular blocking agents have significantly increased the safety of anesthesia, because less anesthetic is required to produce muscle relaxation, allowing patients to recover quickly and completely after surgery. "Swine flu" is caused by an influenza A virus of the H1N1 subtype. "H" and "N" refer to proteins found in the surfance of the virus and serve to identify and categorize the different strains of the virus. "H" stands for hemagglutinin and "N" for neuraminidase. All influenza A viruses contain hemagglutinin and neuraminidase, but the structure of these proteins differ from strain to strain, due to rapid genetic mutation in the viral genone. There are 16 H and 9 N subtypes known in birds, but only H 1, 2 and 3, and N 1 and 2 are commonly found in humans.     During the Second World War, a psychiatrist concluded that showers and ice cream were an effective treatment for combat fatigue.  Ice cream, he said, reminded soldiers of home.  In army camps it quickly became a staple at Sunday dinner and the Navy commissioned the first floating ice cream plant, a barge that produced 5100 gallons an hour.  But airmen had to improvise.  Some of these guys stationed in Britain placed ice cream mix in large cans in the tail gunner’s compartment of bombers where the plane’s vibrations and cold temperatures yielded a velvety product.  According to legend, one of these clever chaps was Irv Robbins.  And the rest, as they say, is history. Nadine Hugill and Bernhard Fink of the University of Göttingen in Germany found that men whose dancing was rated as attractive and assertive by women were physically stronger than those whose moves were dismissed as below par. “This study shows that dynamic cues such as dancing ability might also be used to assess male quality in terms of strength and dominance – traits which eventually signal status.” said the researchers. Even after controlling for body weight, men who were rated as better dancers by women also tended to score higher in strength. Evolutionarily, it makes sense that women would want to seek out stronger and fitter men to have their offspring with, and it seems like good dancers possess those qualities, at least according to this study. One day we may be able to create human sperm in the lab. Karim Nayernia of the University of Newcastle, UK, and his colleagues treated male embryonic stem cells from mice with a range of substances which converted them first into germline stem cells and then into spermatogonial stem cells. These divided to produce “haploid” spermatocytes which went on to mature into sperm. Other scientists are skeptical about the normality of these sperm cells and want more proof that sperm can indeed be created in the lab. Nayernia and his team found that some of the lab sperm cells have tails and can swim, but they still are not identical to normal sperm. Indeed, all seven mouse pups produced by Nayernia’s team in 2006 after fusing normal eggs with sperm created in the lab died within five months. The team is still working on improvements, and if the same can be done with humans, we would have a solution to male infertility. A more distant possibility is the creation of sperm from a woman’s cells, allowing a lesbian couple to have a child. Most of the world’s children get infected by the gastroenteritis-causing Rotavirus by the age of five. In the developed world, appropriate treatment usually minimizes the effect of disease, and most infected individuals develop immunity to Rotavirus after one infection. However, in the developing world, poor sanitary conditions contribute to repeat infections and medical treatment is often inadequate. There are more than 500 000 Rotavirus-related deaths world-wide each year - only about 50 of those occurring in the United States. Rotavirus vaccines have been developed and are being introduced around the world. Making affordable versions of the vaccines available in developing countries is one of the main objectives of aid organizations such as the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Rebiana, Truvia and PureVia are all brands of stevia-based sweeteners soon to flood the food-industry. Stevia is a type of herb native to Central and South America that bears extremely sweet leaves, extracts from which may be up to 300 times as sweet as sugar. However, although stevia is much sweeter than sugar, it appears to be a much healthier option – a sweet deal, so to speak. Stevia may either produce none of sugar’s negative effects on health or even counteract damage that sugar consumption has done. While excess sugar consumption can cause insulin-resistance - the condition that leads to Type 2 Diabetes – stevia may actually increase glucose tolerance, essentially having an opposite effect. However, it must be said that the major movers behind the above-mentioned brands of stevia sweeteners are soft drink giants Coca-Cola and PepsiCo. The bottom line here is that these industry leaders have just found another way to entice consumers into buying the last things the body really needs. In 1995, Nigerian potter Mohammad Bah Abba invented an ingenious cooling system that is helping thousands of subsistence farmers keep produce fresher, longer. Abba’s “desert refrigerator” consists of two clay pots of different diameters, the smaller placed inside the larger, with wet sand packed between the two clay layers. When the sand is kept moist, and the device is stored in a dry, well-ventilated space, water from the sand layer evaporates through the pores in the outer clay pot and takes heat out along with it. Abba’s Pot-in-Pot system is keeping food fresh and young girls safe, since the girls can now attend school instead of rushing out to sell produce before it spoils. Our planet’s most abundant element is oxygen, which accounts for almost ½ (about 46.6%) of Earth’s entire mass. This makes Earth quite different from the universe at large, where hydrogen makes up almost ¾ of all matter. The remainder of the terrestrial crust is made up of approximately 27.7% silicon, 8.1% aluminum, 5.0% iron, 3.6% calcium, 2.8% sodium, 2.6% potassium and 2.1% magnesium, and a blend of the other elements. Gold and platinum are extremely rare but were among the first elements recognized by Earth’s inhabitants because they appear in their pure and shiny form. During a 2006 survey of 94,806 students conducted by the American College Health Association (http://www.acha-ncha.org/pubs_rpts.html), it was found that: 94 out of 100 students reported feeling overwhelmed by all they had to do. 44 out of 100 have felt so depressed it was difficult to function. 18 out of 100 reported having a depressive disorder. 12 out of 100 had an anxiety disorder. 9 out of 100 reported having seriously considered suicide within the previous year. 13 out of every 1,000 students actually attempted suicide at least once during the last year. The bacterium that causes tuberculosis in humans has been co-evolving with its host for thousands of years – at least. Evidence of infection by Mycobacterium tuberculosis has been found in well-preserved skeletal remains of humans who lived about 9 000 years ago. Tuberculosis infection can be inferred by observing physical changes in bone (today tuberculosis is often diagnosed with the help of X-rays) and analyzing the DNA left behind by the bacterium. Such analysis shows that different strains of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex have been morphing and evolving right along with human beings at least since our species started to settle into the sedentary, agricultural mode, and probably much longer than that. Cholera is an often fatal, waterborne infectious disease. As socio-economic conditions worsen in Zimbabwe under Robert Mugabe’s government, there are no longer sufficient resources for appropriate water sanitation and a cholera epidemic has begun. Sanitation practices such as boiling water and even filtering through cloth can significantly reduce chances of infection by killing Vibrio cholerae – the bacterium that causes cholera infection – or physically removing it from water. However, even such simple measures are difficult to maintain in Zimbabwe at this time, where inflation is high and supplies of any kind are hard to come by. Under such difficult conditions, not even the right chemistry can save the day. The memory function of the brain works more like the internet than a bank vault. Calling up memories is like doing a body-based Google search that calls up multiple links to different kinds of media. One memory,for example one of being in a childhood home, may be associated with pictures, words, sounds, smells and sensations. Experiencing the memory is associated with a pattern of activation scattered across different parts of the cerebral cortex. Chocolate might be good for you but could poison your pet? Cocoa beans (from which chocolate is derived) are a rich source of potent antioxidants called flavanols. Nutritional wisdom inherited from ancient Mesoamerican cultures has been getting some preliminary scientific substantiation, with evidence mounting that moderate consumption of dark, flavanol-infused chocolate could help to protect the body from heart disease and other ills associated with inflammation. However, any kind of chocolate therapy would unfortunately have to be administered with moderation, since chocolate, especially when paired with sugar or milk, could do more harm than good. Cocoa’s high fat content could quickly undermine the work of flavanols, especially if this naturally bitter food has been rendered artificially sweet by adding sugar. Furthermore, milk proteins might make it impossible for the body to absorb flavonoids, so the dark variety is better than the milk chocolate in most commercial brands. Also, think twice before trying to treat your furry friends with a dose of chocolate. Cocoa also contains theobromine, another compound that may contribute to health in humans, but which is difficult for dogs to metabolize. The very substance that could promote heart health in humans may lead to heart failure in canines, and possibly cats, as well. The moral of the chocolate story? Store small amounts of dark chocolate for snacks and keep it to yourself. Baboons in the wild maintain a complex social hierarchy, and subordinates males steer clear of dominant males when they can. During one year in Kenya when the baboon population boomed, local villagers caged many of the animals to prevent them from destroying their crops. Unable to escape the "top baboons" in the cages, many of the subordinate males subsequently dided - not from wounds or malnutrition, but apparently from severe and sustained stress-induced effects. They had gastric ulcers, colitis, enlarged adrenal glands, and extensive degeneration of brain cells in their hippocampus. Studies performed by Robert Sapolsky and his colleagues at Stanford University suggest that it is the direct effect of cortisol, the stress hormone, that damages the hippocampus. These effects of cortisol and stress resemble the effects of againg on the brain. Indeed, research has clearly shown that chronic stress causes premature aging of the brain. Can animals be taught human language? In the 1940s, several psychologists tried raising baby chimpanzees just like human children, including teaching them to speak. Despite extensive training, the chimps never learned to say more than a few words. One main reason is that the position of the animal's larynx prevents a chimp from making the sounds of human speech. In more recent studies, animals have been trained to use either American Sign Language gestures or objects, such as plastic pieces in various shapes, in indicate words. Well-known examples are the chimp named Washoe, trained by Allen and Beatrice Gardner, and the gorilla named Koko, trained by Francine Patterson. While the animals clearly learned the meanings of gestures, it only proves that they have good memories. Advocates of irradiation emphasize that the technique can increase food supplies in many underdevelopped parts of the world, especially in the tropics, where food spoilage destroys much of the food produced. Irradiation could conceivably solve chronic food shortage in these areas. Moreoever, food irradiation adds an extra measure of food safety for AIDS patients and other with lowered immunity; these people are cautioned not to eat uncooked fruits and vegetables and to make sure that all meat, fish, eggs, and other foods that may harbour disease-causing bacteria or parasites are cooked until well-done. Even after these precautions are taken, food-borne diseases are a major hazard for people with compromised immunity. High-dose irradiation can eliminate these dangers. Occasionally, an egg may be found to harbour salmonella bacteria, which can be passed on by the hen or can enter through cracked shells. Although the risk of food poisoning is relavitvely low, it is best to avoid eating raw or partly cooked eggs in any form. People at special risk include the frail elderly, young children, pregnant women, and anyone with lowered immunity due to illness. Caesar salads, fresh mayonnaise, egg-based sauces and dressings, and mousses can all contain raw or partly cooked eggs. To be certain that eggs have been cooked long enough, boil them for at least 7 minutes, poach them for 5 minutes, or fry them for 3 minutes on each side. Both the yolk and the white should be firm. Omelettes and scrambled eggs should be cooked until firm and not runny. Trigeminal neuralgia (tic douloureux) is a sensory disorder of the sensory root of cranial nerve (CN) V characterized by sudden attacks of excruciating, lightening-like jabs of facial pain. A paroxysm (sudden sharp pain) can last for 15 minutes or more. The maxillary nerve (CN V2) is most frequently involved; then the mandibular nerve (CN V3); and, least frequently, the ophthalmic nerve (CN V1). The pain often is initiated by touching a sensitive trigger zone of the skin. The cause of the trigeminal neuralgia is unknown; however, some investigators believe that most affected people have an anomalous blood vessel that compresses the sensory root of CN V. When the aberrant artery is moved away from the root, the symptoms usually disappear. Other researchers believe the condition is caused by pathological processes affecting neurons of the trigeminal ganglion. In some cases, it is necessary to section the sensory root for relief of trigeminal neuralgia. Eating the unripe fruit of the ackee tree results in Jamaican Vomiting Sickness characterized by violent vomiting and hypoglycemia (low sugar levels in the blood). The ackee tree is a tropical evergreen tree that can grow as tall as 40 feet. Its leaves are broad and pinnate; it’s approximately 10-cm-wide and its 100-g fruit may be colored anywhere from straw to bright red. The fruit splits open while still on the tree to reveal 3 glassy black seeds surrounded by a thick, oily, yellow aril. When unripe, the ackee fruit contains a toxin called hypoglycin. Hypoglycin inhibits the breakdown of certain fatty acids, the body’s normal energy resource, which forces the body to rely heavily on glucose to obtain energy. This in turn results in depletion of glucose in the body hence hypoglycemia. In severe cases, convulsions, coma and even death may occur. Ectopia cordis is a very rare birth defect in which the heart is abnormally located. In the most common form, the heart protrudes outside the chest through a split sternum. Less commonly the heart can be situated in the abdominal cavity or in the neck. The most common thoracic form is due to incomplete formation of the thoracic wall during the fourth week of gestation. The ectopic heart is not protected by skin or sternum, and death occurs in most cases during the first few days after birth, usually as a result of infection, cardiac failure, or hypoxemia (low oxygen level in arterial blood). If no severe cardiac defects are present, surgical therapy usually consists of covering the heart with skin. Back strain is a common back problem that usually results from extreme movements of the vertebral column, such as extension (bending backward) or rotation. Back strain refers to some stretching or microscopic tearing of muscle ferbers and/or ligaments of the back. The muscles usually involved are those producing movements of the lumbar intervertebral joints, especially the erector spinae (a group of deep back muscles). If the weight is not properly balanced on the vertebral column, strain is exerted on the muscles. This is undoubtedly a common cause of low back pain. As a protective mechanism, the back muscles go into spasm after an injury or in response to inflammation of structures such as ligaments. When the walls of veins lose their elasticity, they become weak and dilate under the pressure of supporting a column of blood against gravity. This results in varicose veins, abnormally swollen, twisted veins, most often seen in the legs. Varicose veins have a caliber greater than normal and their valve cusps do not meet or have been destroyed by inflammation. These veins have incompetent valves; thus the column of blood ascending toward the heart in unbroken, placing increased pressure on the weakened walls of the beins and exacerbating their varicosities. The term déjà vu is French and means, literally, "already seen." Those who have experienced the feeling describe it as an overwhelming sense of familiarity with something that shouldn't be familiar at all. As much as 70 percent of the population reports having experienced some form of déjà vu. A higher number of incidents occurs in people 15 to 25 years old than in any other age group. While we do not fully understand the mechanism , that odd sensation of already having experienced something may have a new scientific explanation. MIT neuroscientists studying an area of mouse brains in which rapid recognition takes place noticed neural firing that suggested old and new experiences were running together. It's impossible to ask a mouse what it is feeling, but the overlap looks a lot like what you'd expect in a human brain experiencing déjà vu. The scientists' theory: when we encounter a new location, a set of ''place'' neurons fires to create a map of the experience. If we visit another place with a similar map - even if we don't consciously recognize the resemblance - the eerie overlap may occur. Allergies and asthma may be closer kin than we knew. More than half the 20 million asthma cases in the U.S. can be attributed to common allergens such as dust mites, according to a study published in the Journal of Allergies adn Clinical Immunology. Exposure to some of these - like cat dander - at a younger age may offer some protection, researchers suggested, lending support to the idea that Americans may be getting too clean for their own good. Another study found that children with allergies living in affluent countries, where exposure to allergens is quite low, are almost twice as likely to develop asthma as similar children living in less-developed nations. Among the many dangers of a heart attack is damage to the walls of the heart. When cardiac muscle is stressed, ruptures between the usually separate left and right ventricles can cause blood to slosh back and forth between the two chambers, lowering its oxygen content. Surgery to repair the damage can be dangerous since, by definition, it's performed on a weakened heart. But doctors and patients now have a safer alternative, thanks to a new technique in which a polyester-coated metal patch is collapsed, threaded via catheter into the body and positioned in the heart to close off the tear. This can buy patients the time they need to recuperate and allow them to postpone more extensive repair surgery. In many cases, it may even help them avoid that operation altogether, since the polyester covering on the patch encourages new heart tissue to grow, helping to seal the rupture.   In the seemingly endless debate over whether vaccines cause autism, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control (CDC) and Prevention released another study showing that thimerosal, a mercury-based vaccines preservative, does not cause childhood developmental problems. The U.S. National Autism Association fired back, pointing out that the study included only 1,047 subjects, too few for any meaningful conclusions to be drawn. A more extensive CDC study of thimerosal and autism is due in 2008. In an effort to detect autism as early as possible, regardless of its cause, the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) issused recommendations for physicians to start screening patients twice: at 18 months and again at 2 years, instead of waiting until the age of 3 or 4. A new AAP screening kit - consisting of a CD-ROM of surveillance guidelines, developmental checklists and report-keeping charts - can alert doctors to warning signs. In Chinese philosophy, everything in the Universe - including the human body - consists of a balance and interplay between two fundamental forces called yin and yang. Yin is dark, cool, moist, passive, negative, and female; yang is light, warm, dry, active, positive, and male. The Taijitu (literally ''diagram of the supreme ultimate'') symbol reveals how these dark and light qualities intertwine and spring from each other. Chi energy flows between them. If they become unbalanced in the body, the energy flow is upset and ill health may occur. Herbal remedies, acupuncture, or a diet change aim to correct the balance. One must keep in mind that all this, while interesting, is a philosophy, not science. In addition to omega-3 fatty acids, flaxseed contains exceptional quantities of phytoestrogens, molecules whose structure resembles that of estrogens and which are thus able to attenuate the harmful effects caused by excessively high levels of these hormones. Although the isoflavones present in soy arae the phytoestrogen having received the most attention from the medical and scientific communities, other classes of phytoestrogens exist in nature and may also participate in the prevention of breast cancer. This is notably the case of lignans. Lignans are complex compounds present in many plans, although flaxseed is by far the best dietary source of these molecules. Flaxseed contains very high levels of secoisolariciresinol and its close relative matairesinol. These compounds are important in the prevention of cancers whose growth depends on estrogens, because intestinal bacteria are able to convert them into enterolactone and enterodiol, two molecules that interfere with the bonding of estrogens to breast cells. According to the American Institute for Cancer Research report, the ten top ways to avoid cancer are, in no particular order: *Body fat - aim for a body mass index of 21 to 23 and avoid weight gain during adulthood. *Physical activity - aim for 30 to 60 minutes of moderate physical activity, like brisk walking, every day. *Junk food - avoid sugarydrinks and energy-dense fast food. *Meat - eat no more than 500 grams of red meat per week and avoid processed meats. *Alcohol - limit daily intake to one drink for women, two drinks for men. Do not binge drink. *Fruit and vegetables - eat five portions of fruit and non-starchy vegetables each day and limit refined starchy food. *Salt - avoid salt-preserved foods. Limit salt intake to 6 grams per day. *Dietary supplements - don't use supplements to protect against cancer. The best source of nourishment is in food and drink. *Breastfeeding - try to breastfeed for six consecutive months. *Cancer survivors - seek professional nutritional advice. At the end of the Middle Ages, the famous anatomist Andreas Vesalius (1514 – 1564) had the courage to criticize publicly the practice of limiting anatomical dissections to animals. In his monumental work Da fabrica humani corporis, Vesalius describes the anatomy of the human body according to what he had observed at recently introduced public dissections at the “Theater of Anatomy.” He is considered the founder of the science of anatomy. The drawings by his illustrator Kalkar were more exact than anything that had been previously produced. The sketches also introduced a new aesthetic quality, showing dissected bodies in nearly life-like poses, standing in nature and surrounded by everyday items. Andreas Vesalius was also the first person to assemble real bones into an upright structure. No one had ever before dared to do anything similar with cadavers; he more or less pulled the dead out of their graves and put them back into society. A skeleton assembled by Vesalius can still be found at the Institute of Anatomy of the University of Basel. High doses of the B vitamin folic acid don’t lower – and may rise -  the risk of cancer, says a recent clinical trial (2007). Doctors at New Hampshire’s Dartmouth Medical School and elsewhere studied roughly 1,000 men and women who had a history of at least one precancerous polyp, or adenoma, in their colon. Each person was randomly assigned to take a high dose of folic acid (1,000 micrograms a day) or a placebo. After three years, the risk of colorectal cancer was no different, but cancers other than colorectal were diagnosed in 11% of the folic acid takers vs. 6% of the placebo takers. The difference was largely due to prostate cancer, which was diagnosed in 7% of the men taking folic acid, but only 3% of the men who took the placebo. What’s more, when researchers followed roughly 600 of the original participants for an extra 3 to 5 years, the folic acid takers were twice as likely to have three or more adenomas and 67% more likely to have at least one advanced adenoma. So don’t take any more folic acid than you’d get in a typical multivitamin (400 mcg). Cholesterol is a natural substance your body needs, but too much cholesterol can contribute to health problems such as heart disease. A simple blood test, a lipoprotein profile, can tell you if your cholesterol numbers are high enough to be a health concern. If your combined lipids number is above 240, you are at risk of lipids lodging in blood vessels and leading to narrowing and blockages of veins and arteries. Blocked blood vessels can cause coronary heart disease or stroke. The lipoprotein profile measures three things: low density lipoprotein (LDL), high density lipoprotein (HDL), and triglycerides. LDL is sometimes referred to as bad cholesterol. Your LDL number should be under 100 while the HDL, or good cholesterol, number should be 40 or higher. Triglycerides should be less than 150. Technically, triglycerides are not cholesterol, but they are included in the profile as high levels of triglycerides can also indicate an increased risk of heart disease. Taking a break in your gym workout may result in you burning  more fat than the same amount of exercise without a break, according to a report from Kazyshige Goto of the University of Tokyo, Japan, and his colleagues. They studied seven men with an average age of 25. On different days, the men did no exercise at the same intensity for two half-hour periods separated by a 20-minute rest. During the rest period, levels of free fatty acids in the men’s blood increased rapidly, indicating that stored fat was being mobilized. The fatty acid levels were also higher in the second half-hour of exercise if this followed a rest period than when it was part of a continuous bout, and remained higher during the hour after exercise had finished. “Taking a breather between exercise provides an opportunity for fat to be released from fat cells,” says David Cameron-Smith of Deakin University in Melbourne, Australia. Once exercise starts again, the fat in the blood may be used for energy, rather than stores of carbohydrates, he says – although the researchers didn’t specifically show that this was happening. The two-dollar Canadian coin - affectionately known as the toonie - is a fascnating amalgam of art and chemistry. It is composed of an outer ring of mostly nickel, with a gold-colored inner disk of 92% copper, 6% aluminum, and 2% nickel. The outer ring is strongly attracted to a magnet, but the inner ring is not. If this coin is heated strongly over a Bunsen burner flame and then quicklly submerged in cold water, the smaller inner coin can be made to pop out! All metal expand when heated, but not at the same rate. The amount of expansion a material experiences when heated is known as its coefficient of linear expansion. Copper has a higher rate of expansion when heated than nickel, which also means that copper shrinks more rapidly when cooled. When plunged into cool water directly after heating, the inner coin will shrink at a greater rate than the outer ring, causing the inner coin to fall out. When the toonie was first introduced in 1996, some defective coins would separate if given a hard blow or frozen. This flaw was corrected not long after its debut. It is currently against the law in Canada to deliberately separate the two parts of a toonie. Plants and animals died in ancient seas 10 to 600 million years ago and their remains sank into the mud. In the layers of mud, little or no oxygen was present as microorganisms decomposed the remains. As more layers of sediment piled up, the pressure and heat increased, converting the decayed remains into a mixture of hydrocarbons (molecules made of carbon and hydrogen) - our crude oil. For years, oil has been known as ''black gold'', among other terms. The hydrocarbons found in petroleum are among the most important chemicals konwn. They are the reactants used for manufacturing plastics, medicines, fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides, and a multitude of other products. Many of these compounds possess an emormous amount of energy. If a gallon of gasoline could be used as food, it would be the equivalent of 31,000 food calories. That's enough to feed a teenager for about two weeks! Paintballs are not really made from paint, but rather from a mixture of non-toxic food grade ingredients. The exact combination is a trade secret but we do know that polyethylene glycol (PEG) is used. PEG is a tasteless, colorless, and nearly odorless compound that dissolves in water but unlike water, does not break down the gelatin shell of the paint ball. PEG is very viscous, meaning it flows slowly. Its thick syrupy consistency makes it perfect for use in paintballs; they have a consistency somewhat like blood when they break open. In addition to PEG, paintballs also contain colored food dyes, preservatives, and a thickener such as starch or wax. The ingredients within the paintball are also biodegradable, so they pose no threat to wildlife or the environment. A lot of people are confused about calories. First of all, a calorie is not a thing, and cannot be full or empty. It is a unit of energy. Specifically, it is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one mL (one gram) of water by one degree Celsius. If you want to be a stickler for detail, it is the energy needed to raise the temperature from 14.5C to 15.5 C. The word "calorie" was coined by the French chemist Lavoisier, who used it to refer to the body's internal heat. A food Calorie is acutally a "kilocalorie." In other words, it is the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of one liter of water by one degree. The calorie content of any food is measured in a calorimeter. In the simplest device, a weighed sample of a food, which has had its water content evaporated, is placed in to a container surrounded by a known amount of water. The container is sealed, oxygen is piped in and the food is ignited. From the rise in temperature of the water, we can calculate the calorie content of the food. The results can be surprising. For example, the calorie content of a doughnut is close to that of a stick of dynamite. The difference of course is that the eneregy from the dynamite is released instantly when ignited, while the doughnut releases its energy content in the body more slowly. So you don't blow up from a doughnut. Not literally anyway. Alpha hydroxy acids (AHAs) are a commonly used ingredient in skin care products. AHAs work by promoting exfoliation in the outer layer of the skin, resulting in a healthier-looking, clearer complexion. Products containing AHAs became wildly populara in the 1990s - not only were AHAs moisturizing and exfoliating, but they were naturally derived from citrus fruit, apples, pears, and milk. Because the ingredients were natural, people felt good about putting AHAs on their face (although whether something is natural or not says nothing about its safety or efficacy). AHAs are one of the safest methods of skin renewal. Still, their effectiveness depends on the type and concentration of the AHA, the pH (acidity), and other ingredients in the topical product. The AHAs used most often in cosmetics include glycolic acid and lactic acid, althogh there are many others, and many AHAs are used in combination. In Memoirs of an Invisible Man, an invisible Chevy Chase walks on a beach. But if he could really become invisible, the anatomy of the eye tells us that Chevy would not be able to see anything either. A person can see because of cornea and lens of the eye focus light rays on the retina, a thin tissue at the back of the eye. The retina absorbs the light and converts it to electrical signals, which are sent by the optic nerve to the brain. An invisible man would be transparent, allowing light rays to pass through his body without being absorbed by any of his molecules. Consequently, light rays would pass right through the eye, the retina would absorb no light, and the invisible man would be unable to see. Before World War II, some progress was made in the battle against two major killers – uterine and cervical cancer. In 1898, the Austrian surgeon Ernst Wertheim devised an operation for advanced cancer – still known as ‘Wertheim’s hysterectomy’ –  in which, as well as removing the uterus, far more tissue was taken from a woman’s pelvis than previously. Of even more benefit was the early detection of cancer. At Cornell University in the late 1930s, while working with the gynecologist Herbert Traut, the Greek-born pathologist George N. Papanicolaou discovered abnormal cells in the vaginal smears of women with uterine cancer. In 1943, the two researchers published a monograph entitled Diagnosis of Uterine Cancer by the Vaginal Smear – and the ‘Pap smear’ was launched, allowing the detection of precancerous changes to the cervix. Gooseberries have many nutritional benefits. They are high in fiber (about 4 g in a cup of raw berries), vitamin C (50 mg per fresh cup), and potassium (250 mg per cup). They are also rich in bioflavonoids – plant pigments that help prevent cancer and other diseases. Some of these nutrients are lost in processing; a cup of canned gooseberries loses more than half of its vitamin C, as well as some potassium. The canned berries are also high in calories, yielding 180 calories per cup, compared to 65 for the fresh fruit. The origin of the name “gooseberries” gas nothing to do with geese. Instead, the term comes of the Old English word for the berries – groser, grosier, and grozer. Gooseberries have been cultivated in Europe, and especially in England, since the 15th century. Pasta is a “mood food!” The brain uses the chemical serotonin to make us feel good. When you eat carbohydrates such as pasta, there is a rapid increase in blood sugar and serotonin levels. The good feelings arrive within about 30 minutes and last for several hours. Eating protein with the pasta, however, can negate the effect, while whole-grain pastas, which take longer to break down, prolong it. About 40 to 50% of the adult population and 50 to 80% of all adolescents in the world have a skin condition called keratosis pilaris (KP), although for many of them, the condition is so mild they do not notice it. KP is a very common genetic follicular condition that is manifested by the appearance of rough bumps on the skin and hence colloquially referred to as "chicken skin". It most often appears on the back and outer sides of the upper arms (though the lower arms can also be affected), and can also occur on the thighs and tops of legs, flanks, buttocks or any body part except glabrous skin (like the palms or soles of feet). Less commonly, lesions appear on the face and may be mistaken for acne. There are currently no known cures for KP but symptoms can be made less apparent with exfoliation, moisturizing, Retin A, and lotions containing alpha hydroxy acids or urea. Amongst the rarest curiosities in R. L. Ripley's 'Believe It Or Not' collection of unbelievable artifacts were a pair of shrunken heads from Ecuador, South America, one of which Ripley received in the mail with a note saying: "Please take good care of this. I think it is one of my relatives!" The practice of shrinking human heads was once common amongst the Jivaro Indians of Ecuador, South America. The shrinking of human heads was a ritual that had been handed down for centuries from one generation to another. The heads of slain enemies were valued as war trophies and symbols of bravery. When a fighter killed his enemy, the victim's head was cut off. The skin was then peeled away from the skull and hot stones and sand were poured into the cavity. The head was sewn shut and boiled in herbs until it shrunk to the size of a fist. It was then smoked over an open fire to darken and harden it while ceremonial dances, songs, and feasts were performed - often for as long as three days. In 1906, the British doctor Montague Murray officially  named asbestosis (scarring of the lung tissue, leading to chronic debilitating illness) as the cause of death of a former asbestos worker. When a third victim was diagnosed in the late 1920s, the British Home Office authorized two researchers, Merewether and Price, to carry out the first study of the mineral’s effect on occupational health. Their report, published in 1930, found that, of sample of 374 asbestos workers, 105 had lung scarring, and a quarter of these had definitely contracted the disease through their work. They concluded that reducing dust levels would reduce the incidence of asbestosis, and advised that efficient exhaust ventilation be provided, and that some workers should be replaced by machines. It was not until much later that the link between asbestos and cancer was confirmed. Gout is a type of crystal-induced arthritis that may cause sudden and severe pain, swelling, and redness in one or more joints. The problem is more common in men than in women, and when it occurs in women, it is usually after menopause. Owing to a problem of metabolism, the cause of which is unclear but is sometimes inherited, excess uric acid accumulates in the body. Normally, uric acid stays in dissolved form, is collected by the blood, and then excreted in urine. In gout, however, this uric acid comes out of solution in the synovial fluid of a joint, forming needlelike crystals. The affected joint, often the big toe, becomes red, hot, swollen, and very painful. Gout can occur spontaneously or be linked with drinking alcohol, certain forms of surgery, or some medications such as diuretecs or chemotherapy. Drug treatment can relieve the pain of an attack and help prevent recurrence. Sanitary protection for menstruating women was primitive until World War I, when nurses began to use surgical dressings. Later, both American and British menufacturers started to produce the first disposable sanitary towels. Then, in 1931, Earle Cleveland Haas, a ccountry doctor in Colorado, patented a new invention: a roll of cotton with a string attached, stuffed inside two telescoping cardboard tubes. Initially calling his product a 'catamenial device', Dr. Haas eventually arrived at the more commercial name of 'Tampax'. The product took a long time to gain acceptance. Between 1945 and 1956, the General Medical Council in Britain required a warning on each box stating that Tampax was unsuitable for unmarreid womne and young girls. However, millions of women ignored the advice, and in the late 1960s, Dr. Haas was named by the Sunday Times (London) as one of the "1000 Makers of thte 20th Century". In a cataract, the normally transparent lens of the eye is cloudy as a result of changes in the protein fibers in the lens. The clouding affects the transmission and focusing of light entering the eye, reducing the clarity of vision. The most common cause of cataracts seems to be the general aging process, and most people over 75 have some cataract formation. Cataracts are sometimes present from birth, caused when a women is infected with rubella during early pregnancy. Diabetes mellitus and exposure to radiation are other possible causes. Cataracts can be treated by surgically implanting an articificial replacement lens. Saliva is produced by three pairs of salivary glands: the parotids, in front of and just below the ear; the submandibular, on the inner sides of the lower jawbone (mandible); and the sublinguals in the floor of the mouth, below the tongue. In addition, numerous small accessory glands are found in the mucous membranes lining the mouth and tongue. Although saliva is composed of 99.5 percent water, it also contains important solutes such as amylase, a digestive enzyme that begins breakdown of starches, and salts. Saliva lubricates food to make chewing and swallowing easier,and it keeps the mouth moist between periods of eating. A lumbar puncture, also known as a spinal tap, may be performed to look for evidence of meningitis. The procedure is carried out under local anesthesia and takes about 15 minutes. The patient lies on his or her side whlie a hollow needle ins inserted into the spine between two vertebrae, usually the third and fourth lumbar vertebrae, below the point where the spinal cord ends. A sample of cerebrospinal fluid is withdrawn and analyzed in a laboratory for evidence of infection and to determine the type of infectious organism. After the procedure, the patient is advised to remain lying down and rest for an hour to prevent a severe headache. The intertropical convergence zone is what scientists call a belt near the earth’s equator where the winds and currents of the northern and southern hemispheres meet. Because of its rich biodiversity of species and ecosystems, the area is a natural lab for scientists to observe firsthand the effects of climate change. The hot spot on the belt is Palmyra Atoll, a 275-hectare blip about 1,600 km south of the Hawaiian Islands that is owned by the Nature Conservancy. The atoll is home to 29 bird species and a new $1.5 million research station. The researchers who gather there, mainly from universities, are studying rising sea levels, changes in species diversity and the effects of ocean acidification on submerged reefs. The station has already produced its first research paper: a study of the atoll’s biomass levels in fish that has helped redefine a healthy coral reef. Your Big Mac is responsible for more global warming than your car. The international meat industry generates roughly 18% of the world’s greenhouse-gas emissions – even more than transportation (14%) – according to a report in 2006 from the U.N.’s Food and Agriculture Organization. Much of that comes from the nitrous oxide and the methane in manure. Methane has a warming effect that is 23 times as great as that of carbon, while nitrous oxide is 296 times as great. There are 1.5 billion cattle and buffalo on the planet, along with 1.7 billion sheep and goats. Their populations are rising fast, especially in the developing world. Global meat production is expected to double between 2001 and 2050. Given the amount of energy consumed raising, shipping and selling livestock, a thick T-bone is like a Hummer on a plate. If you switch to vegetarianism, you can shrink your carbon footprint by up to almost 1.4 tons of carbon dioxide a year, according to research by the University of Chicago. Trading a standard car for a hybrid cuts only about one ton – and it doesn’t come with antioxidants. A recent study by Cambridge University’s Institute of Manufacturing found that 60% of the energy associated with a piece of clothing is spent in washing and drying it. Over its lifetime, a T shirt can send up to 4 kg of carbon dioxide into the air. The solution is not to avoid doing laundry, tempting as that may be. Rather, wash your clothes in warm water instead of hot, and save up to launder a few big loads instead of many smaller ones. Use the most efficient machine you can find. Dry your clothes the natural way, by hanging them on a line instead of loading them in a dryer. Altogether you can reduce the CO2 created by your laundry up to 90%. Plus, no more magically disappearing socks. In December 2006, Raleigh, North Carolina, turned one floor of a municipal parking garage into a testing ground for LEDs, or light-emitting diodes. The new white, brighter fixtures use 40% less electricity than the high-pressure sodium bulbs they replaced. Although they cost two to three times as much, they can go five or more years without upkeep. Traditional bulbs must be replaced every 18 months. Other types of LEDs are already lighting up skyscrapers in Sweden and bus shelters in Britain, and working in traffic lights, outdoor displays and stadiums around the world; airports even use LEDs on their taxiways. If your city is still burning tax money on old lights, ask the mayor why. Around 650 AD, the emperor of China began to issue paper "value tokens" for general use. As Marco Polo reported enthusiastically in 1275, "I tell you that people are glad to take these tokens, because wherever they go in the empire of the great Khan, they can use them to buy and sell as if they were pure gold". Europeans had to wait until the 17th century when Sweden took the lead in issuing paper currency. Other countries gradually followed the Swedish example. Studies in South Africa, Uganda and Kenya have recently shown that circumcised men are on average 60 per cent less likely than uncircumcised men to pick up the virus. It may not seem like the kindest cut, but circumcision has been hailed as a vital new way to combat HIV. In a report issued on March 28th 2007, the World Health Organization and UNAIDS issued a series of recommendations to increase rates of circumcision in countries where the HIV problem is most serious. There are caveats, however. The procedure must be done by a trained physician, and men must realize that it doesn’t provide full protection, so they should carry on using condoms and having fewer partners. In tests of sexual stimulation by smell alone by Dr. Hirsch and his team at the Smell & Taste Treatment and Research Foundation, a combination of doughnuts and liquorice increased blood flow to the penis by an average of 32%. Liquorice and cucumber did it for the ladies, increasing vaginal blood flow by an average of 13%. When Western missionaries introduced the science of chemistry to China in the middle of the 19th century, they called it hua-hsüeh, “the study of change.” The choice was a good one, and it has survived as the name for this discipline is China as well as Japan. “The study of change” captures the essence of chemistry: chemical reactions. These may catch the eye of even the casual observer as compounds are transformed with explosive effect or as substances with unimaginable properties appear, leaving little doubt that some important change has occurred. The introduction of Western chemistry to China marked an important change in the history of this ancient culture. More than anything, it was the work of two translators, John Fryer (1839-1928), a failed English missionary, and Hsü Shou (1818-1882), an amateur scholar and military technologist, that introduced this subject to the Chinese. Easily bored people are at higher risk for depression, anxiety, drug addiction, alcoholism, compulsive gambling, eating disorders, hostility, anger, poor social skills, bad grades and low work performance. Part of the boredom puzzle may be individual differences in how much excitement and novelty we require. Men, for example, are generally more bored than women. They also exhibit more risk-taking behaviors, report enjoying more dangerous entertainment and are more likely to say that their environments are dull. There are also cases of people who, after suffering from traumatic brain injuries, suddenly become ennui-prone and indulge in riskier activities after their accidents. Opening windows is more effective at helping prevent the spread of tuberculosis (TB) than using expensive, hard-to-maintain fans. The rate of air change in a hospital room ventilated with powerful fans is 12 times an hour, in a naturally ventilated room 28 times an hour, and in rooms built before 1950 with high ceilings and big windows, 40 times an hour. More than three quarters of TB cases occur in impoverished tropical areas such as South America, Africa and Asia where mechanical ventilators are prohibitively expensive. Installing skylights and bigger windows would be a more affordable and effective way to avoid TB. The level of science illiteracy may explain why over 40 percent of Americans do not believe in evolution and about 20 percent, when asked if the earth orbits the sun or vice versa, say it's the sun that does the orbiting--placing these people in the same camp as the Inquisition that punished Galileo almost 400 years ago. More men than women currently have heart disease at every age. But that may change, because women are catching up to men in their risk for developing the disease. By age 60, on average, women have as many coronary risk factors – such as hypertension, high cholesterol, and excess weight – as men, and after 60, they have more. Less than two decades ago, women didn’t catch up to men until age 70. Women who drink soda regularly may be at increased risk of osteoporosis. In a study of more than 2,500 adults, women who downed cola daily had significantly lower bone mineral density in three hip sites than women who drank soda once a month or less, regardless of age, menopausal status, or calcium intake. Similar results were seen for diet soda. Researchers say that the reason for the bone loss may be that calcium absorption is blocked by phosphoric acid, a soda-flavoring agent. Illegal drugs such as cocaine or amphetamines can simulate the euphoria of falling in love by raising levels of the neurotransmitter dopamine, but dopamine levels can also be increased legally by exercising. Another neurotransmitter, phenylethylamine (PEA), is tagged the "love molecule" because it induces feelings of excitement and apprehension. PEA is found in chocolate and it, too, is linked to the feel-good effects of exercise. Overall, a swift jog could be more conducive to love than anything you might find in a bottle. When you first fall in love, you are not experiencing an emotion, but a motivation or drive, brain scanning studies have shown. The early stages of a romantic relationship spark activity in dopamine-rich brain regions associated with motivation and reward. The more intense the relationship is, the greater the activity. The regions associated with emotion, such as the insular cortex and parts of the anterior cingulate cortex, are not activated until the more mature phases of a relationship, says Helen Fisher, an anthropologist from Rutgers University in New Jersey. Over the past 50 years, sperm counts around the world have fallen from an average of 113 million sperm per ml to between 66 and 76 million. Scientists have suggested that male infertility is the leading cause of infertile couples. A number of studies have shown that a good dietary intake of antioxidants and micronutrients is critically important for normal semen quality and reproductive function. Healthy men with a higher antioxidant intake from both diet and supplements are likely to have more sperm and their sperm will be more motile. In the "shaky bridge study" carried out by psychologists Arthur Aron and Don Dutton in the 1970s, men who met a woman on a high, rickety bridge found the encounter sexier and more romantic than those who met her on a low, stable one. It's all because of a strong connection between anxiety, arousal and attraction. A ride on a rollercoaster or a viewing of a scary movie works as well. Why? No one is sure, but the adrenaline rush from the danger might be misattributed to the thrill of attraction. But beware: while someone attractive becomes more so in a tense setting, the unattractive appear even less appealing. An international team of scientists - including physicists from the University of Calgary (U of C) - will begin gathering the most detailed information yet about the ever-changing northern lights, as a multi-year research project enters its ultimate phase with the launch of five NASA satellites from Cape Canaveral next month (Feb. 2007). Auroras are caused by the interaction of charged particles from the Sun, also known as the solar wind, with the Earth's magnetic field. About a billion dollars a year is now spent around the world on “magnet therapy,” which is claimed to eliminate many symptoms and diseases. Basic scientific principles indicate that all of this money is wasted. Many obese people eat more than half their daily calories at night and researchers at the University of Texas Southwester Medical Center in Dallas may have found the location in the brain that is responsible for this nighttime eating habit. The researchers found that the activity of genes in a brain region called the dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus was abnormal in mice that were not fed at their normal eating time. If this turns out to apply to humans, it will offer a new direction for antiobesity drugs. Sir Arthur Conan Doyle was a physician and a highly acclaimed writer. His famous character Sherlock Holmes was a shrewd detective with formidable powers of reasoning. Yet Conan Doyle showed dramatic lapses in his own critical thinking. He was a devoted convert to spiritualism, believing that living persons could contact the disembodied spirits of the dead through mediums. Furthermore, he believed that eight-inch-tall fairies inhabited the English countryside in Cottingley Glen. In 1985, German physicist Wilhelm Roentgen announced the discovery of an invisible form of radiation that could make photographs of bones and organs inside a living human body. At first, many scientists called the discovery of mysterious “X-rays” a hoax, but when the skeptics put Roentgen's claims to the test, they were quickly convinced about one of the greatest discoveries in science and medicine. Indeed, just six years after his discovery, Roentgen was awarded the first Nobel Prize in physics. A study by World Health Organization researchers projected that by 2030, the three leading causes of illness and disability will be HIV/AIDS, followed by depression and ischemic heart disease. On the other hand, tobacco, currently blamed for some 5.4 million deaths a year, is set to kill 6.5 million in 2015 and 8.3 million in 2030, with the biggest rise in low-and middle-income countries. Un avion d'American Airlines a dû récemment faire un atterrissage d'urgence après que des passagers aient remarqué l'odeur associée à des allumettes enflammées. Celles-ci ont été retrouvées sur le siège d'une passagère qui avait essayé de masquer l'odeur de flatulence en brulant des allumettes. A ce sujet, il est temps de mettre au rencart ce mythe une fois pour toute. Bruler des allumettes ne détruit pas les composés chimiques responsables de l'odeur de flatulence. Tout au plus, l'effet est de masquer une odeur par une autre. A new technology called elasticity imaging may one day replace biopsy in detecting breast tumours. Unlike a biopsy, elasticity imaging requires no needles or scalpels. For the patient, it will feel and look like a regular ultrasound, in which a probe is used to peer deep into breast tissue and create an image using high-frequency sound waves. The results are analyzed by a computer software, and in a recent study of 80 women, it performed extremely well at identifying cancerous as well as benign lesions. A larger trial comprising of 2,000 patients will start in 2007. Identifying drunk drivers could get a lot quicker and easier after a new infrared alcohol test that will be launched in 2007. Using the fact that body tissue with alcohol in it absorbs more light than normal tissue, the device detects alcohol levels by shining infrared light on the subject's skin and analyzing tissue based on how it reflects light. The test (which doesn't have an official name yet) takes 60 sec. to produce results vs. 20 min. for a Breathalyzer test and days for a standard blood test. There is now a way to pull out drinkable water out of thin air! The water-harvesting machine developed by Aqua Sciences uses a chemical process similar to the one that causes salt to absorb moisture from the air (and clump up your saltshaker) and can gather up to 1,900 L of potable water. This will be a godsend for disaster victims or troops in desert combat! A San Diego company is breeding felines that are naturally hypoallergenic. Most cats produce a protein in their saliva that can trigger an allergic reaction in humans; some breeds, like Siamese, produce less if it than others. But in Allerca's mixed-breed cats, the protein is virtually undetectable. Allerca tests each cat and offers a one-year money-back guarantee. Demand is high: there's already a 15-month wait for the sniffle-proof kitties. Blackberries have recently been crowned the king of antioxidants. Researchers found that there are more antioxidants in a serving (250 mL or one cup) of blackberries than any other foods. Other foods that are also high in antioxidants are, in order of strength: grape juice, artichoke hearts, walnuts, strawberries, blueberries, red wine and chocolate. The skins from grapes used to make a number of popular red wines seem to contain high levels of the sleep-inducing compound melatonin, which may explain why some people get sleepy after imbibing them. Melatonin is produced in mammals by the pineal gland, a tiny brain structure, and its secretion is stimulated by darkness, inhibited by light, hence the nickname “hormone of darkness.” According to U.S. Department of Agriculture researchers, watermelons stored at room temperature (21 degrees Celsius) are richer in nutrients than refrigerated ones. By letting your watermelons ripen outside the fridge, you are also allowing them to gain lycopene and beta-carotene, both of which are important nutrients. They are also responsible for the red color of the fruit and are found in tomatoes and carrots as well. Lycopene, an antioxidant, has been linked to reducing the risk of several diseases such as prostate cancer, and lowering inflammation that may cause hypertension and heart disease. Smoking cigars can leave an “after aroma” in your mouth for days. Russell A. Bazemore, an analytical chemist from Chicago , and his team have now identified the strongest smelling compounds in cigar smokers' breath in the hopes of developing breath fresheners to neutralize these odors. 2-Ethylpyrrole, for instance, is responsible for the musty smell; pyrazines have a savory odor reminiscent of cooked meat; and pyridines just stink. Now that the researchers know the exact compounds that cause cigar breath, further research can be carried out to find a solution to this smelly problem. A chemical reaction inside fireflies enables them to light up, a process called bioluminescence. A glow is emitted when oxygen in cells combines with calcium, the energy storage molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and luciferin pigments in the presence of the enzyme luciferase. Fireflies shine for a variety of reasons, and one of them is to attract the opposite sex. It has been shown in two different firefly species that females are more attracted to males who emit faster and more intensive flashes. A communications satellite has to send and receive, or relay, thousands of phone calls and TV programs across Earth simultaneously. It does so by catching and relaying microwave (high-energy radio wave) signals that are transmitted from the ground. These signals travel through space at the speed of light in narrowly focused beams. Most communications satellite orbit the Earth in the same direction and at the same speed as the Earth rotates. They are always over the same point on Earth, making them appear stationary. This is called geostationary orbit (GEO). Several hundred of these communications satellites are in geostationary orbit. Microwaves are very short radio waves that carry a lot of energy. The food in a microwave oven cooks when these waves transfer their energy to the water molecules inside the food. Microwaves cook food quickly because they set all the water molecules vibrating at once. But in a conventional oven, heat energy transfers to food slowly from the outside in. When an airplane crashes at great speed and from a great height, there may be few clues to reveal what went wrong. The "black box" contains data from instruments, measurements from sensors around the plane, and conversations recorded by microphones in the cockpit. Typically, the tail section of a plane survives the tremendous impact of a crash, so this is where the black box is stored. The box can support a 5-ton weight without being crushed, and its automatic underwater beacon will send out a beeping signal for at least six years. One high-tech manipulation that is currently the focus of much attention is something called micro-oxygenation (or microbullage, as it is sometimes known). It's a winemaking technique for adding very low levels of oxygen to a developing wine over an extended period. Small “microbubbles” of oxygen are fed through a special ceramic device placed at the bottom of the fermentation tank. The tank needs to be quite tall to do this effectively, and the flow rate can be carefully controlled so that the oxygen dissolves into the wine completely before it reaches the top. The idea is that it allows winemakers to simulate the slow, controlled oxidation of barrel-ageing in wines that are kept in stainless-steel tanks. More than 5 billion disposable batteries are thrown away every year. They are a major cause of environmental pollution: some contain extremely toxic chemicals such as mercury and cadmium, which leak in landfills, polluting land and watercourses. You can help make this world a better place by getting rid of your used batteries at a recycling center. Swirling, colored iris patterns make all eyes unique – even identical twins have different patterns. A computerized system that recognizes people by their iris patterns is the latest and most accurate method of biometric identification – the science of identifying people by recording their unique biological features. Iris recognition systems are already in use in high-security buildings, such as airports. The first time a person uses the system, there is a two-minute process in which their eyes are photographed. The resulting image is converted into a digital IrisCode and stored in a database. The next time the individual passes through the system, their iris is scanned again. The system searches for a match in its database of IrisCodes. Within two seconds a match can be found and the person identified. The amount of sugar you eat is not what causes cavities; but rather the form and frequency of sugar ingestion. For example, foods that are more fluid and less sticky, like soft drinks or fruit drinks, have less of a chance to contribute to tooth decay. On the other hand, sugary foods that stay in your mouth for a period of time are the worst culprits for cavity formation. It was found that people who suck on lollipops or gummy candies retain sugar in their mouths three times longer than those who consume sugar in other forms. Believe it or not, it can take up to thirety minutes before our salvia neutralizes the sugar from these candies! This gives more than enough time for those pesky bacterial enzymes to begin decaying our pearly whites. In Chinese medicine, the body is considered a stable balance of the earth's five elements - earth, water, fire, wood and metal. And depending on the body's controlling yin and yang forces, each element can either create or destroy one another. In a healthy body, the yin and yang hold each other in balance; but if one force predominates, the body will react causing an illness to arise in that specific region of the body. This is where acupuncture comes in. The aim of acupuncture is to rebalance the yin and yang of the body; restore the harmony happening within. This can explain why some feel there is a point to acupuncture...although it may not be very sharp. You can understand what your dog is barking now with the aid of a bowlingual's collar and handset. The microphone on the collar picks up the bark, which is then turned into a digital signal and beamed through the air via radio waves to the handset. The handset then matches distinctive features of the digital bark to patterns stored in its database. Dogs can produce many different barks and sounds, which all look very different when viewed as digital voiceprints. Bowlingal's handset stores details of 200 different barks, in the form of voiceprints, in a way similar to a human voice recognition system. Although different breeds may produce different sounds, the translator can usually match a bark to one of the six basic moods: sad, frustrated, on-guard, needy, happy, or assertive. Of all medical imaging technologies, ultrasound scanning poses the least risk to health. That is why it is used to produce images of unborn babies. Ultrasound scanners send high-frequency sound waves through the body. Returning echoes are recorded and used to create an image. Most ultrasound scanners produce a single-slice image, but the latest scanners take multiple slices to produce a 3D image. Unlike other scanners, ultrasound produces a live, moving image on screen. When a match is struck, friction between glass powder in the match tip and the striker on the box produces a small amount of heat. This converts the red phosphorus on the box striker into a cloud of white phosphorus gas. The white phosphorus ignites in air and makes the potassium chlorate and sulfur in the match tip react together. This reaction happens at a high enough temperature to set fire to the wood. In 2001, US surgeons installed the world's first self-contained artificial heart in a patient with heart disease. Made of titanium and plastic, the AbioCor heart has a hydraulic motor to pump blood around the body. It is powered by an external battery, carried by the patient. It extends the life expectancy of patients with serious heart disease by a few months. Because of global warming, growing-season temperatures have increased by an average of 2°C (3.59°F) for most of the world's high-quality wine regions over the last fifty years. In tandem with this rise in temperatures, the quality of vintages has also improved. It is predicted that by 2049, the growing-season temperature will increase by an average of 2.04°C (3.67°F), on top of the 2°C (3.59°F) rise seen over the last fifty years. This is a very significant change and will be most beneficial for cool-climate regions, such as England . English wineries will be able to ripen the fruit better and may even be able to consider other varieties that could not ripen there today. Fugu is japanese for puffer fish. Valued for its exquisite taste, the fish is a cherished culinary item in Japan, sought out by thousands annually who are willing to risk consuming it. Eating puffers is dangerous indeed; more than 50 people die every year from eating puffer fish, and the death is not a pleasant one. Despite the risks, custormers pay as much as $400 a serving for fugu. Puffer fish contains tetrodotoxin, a lethal poison for which there is no antidote. The liver, ovaries, and to a lesser extent the skin of the fish contain the toxin, which acts by blocking cellular sodium channels, thereby preventing nerves from generating the propagated spikes that activate muscles. The consequence is death by paralysis and asphyxiation. Needless to say, only licensed chefs who have undergone extensive training know how to and are allowed to serve the fish. Diabetics who find the daily injections of insulin to be torture can get ready for some relief. In January 2006, Pfizer received approval from the U.S. government and an E.U. regulatory panel to market the first inhaled insulin, Exubera. The powdered insulin, taken just before meals, is released into the mouth and lungs through an inhaler similar to the ones that asthma patients use. The main spice used to make curry, turmeric, is the new interest of many health scientists because curcumin, a chemical found in the spice, has the potential to prevent and treat a broad range of diseases: cancer, cystic fibrosis, Alzheimer's and arthritis. Curcumin turns out to be the best blocker yet of a natural chemical called TNF, or tumor necrosis factor, which contributes to cancers and arthritis and is resistent to chemotherapy drugs. Rats, among other rodents, possess something called a 'vomeronasal organ' (or VNO) inside their noses. They use it to detect pheromones in the urine of other rats and use this extra sense to understand social relationships, identify the sex of fellow rats and find a mate. Rats have different pheromones in their urine depending on the make-up of their immune system. When rats choose a mate, they must avoid partners with an immune system too similar to their own, so that their babies can fight off a wider range of infections. For most of us, chocolate is a delicious brown substance, with no more problems than an expanding waistline or rotting teeth. But it turns out that, for dogs, it can be toxic, even lethal. A chemical in chocolate called theobromine is the source of the problem. Theobromine is a xanthine compound, so is caffeine. These substances are not excreted properly by dogs and can be toxic in sufficient quantities. What happens in the body is that, after the toxic xanthines are absorbed by the intestines, they are transported into the liver where filtration and detoxification usually takes place. For some reason, a dog's liver is only able to remove some of the xanthines but most will exit the liver via the hepatic vein and enter the heart, the lungs and the circulating blood. The stuff that makes garlic smell is the stuff that makes it good: allyl sulfides, phytochemicals that can reduce “bad” cholesterol and may make the blood less sticky. Garlic also wards off bacteria and fungi, and, of course, vampires; without a doubt, you'll agree that if you have garlic in the house, none of these blood-thirsty creatures have been visiting... Onions, like other plants, are made of cells. The cells are divided into two sections separated by a membrane. One side of the membrane contains an enzyme which helps chemical processes occur in your body. The other side of the membrane contains molecules that contain sulfur. When you cut an onion, the contents on each side of the membrane mix and cause a chemical reaction. This reaction produces molecules such as ethylsufide which make your eyes water. To prevent crying when you cut an onion, cut it under a running tap of cold water. The sulfur compounds dissolve in water and are rinsed down the sink before they reach your eyes. You can also put the onion in the freezer for ten minutes before you cut it. Cold temperatures slow down the reaction between the enzyme and the sulfur compounds so fewer of the burning molecules will reach your eyes. In ancient myth, when the son of the Norse goddess Frigga was killed by an arrow made of mistletoe and then brought back to life, she blessed the mistletoe and bestowed a kiss on all who passed beneath it. In the 18th century, the legend was adopted as a promise to marry. At Christmas a lady standing under a mistletoe may not refuse a kiss. If she does, she cannot expect to marry the following year. So it is told. A study on Cell Metabolism reports that the muscles of people who are overweight may be programmed to store fat rather than burn it. The obese produce three times as much SCD1, a fat-building enzyme, as thin people, and their muscles burn 43% less fat. One sure way to reboot your body: exercise. Countless single women are tortured by the thought that their prime childbearing years are ticking away. A researcher from Britain 's University of Sheffield has developed a test that may be able to tell women how much time they have left. The test measures blood levels of three hormones that determine when a woman is nearing menopause - and how many of her viable eggs remain. U.K.-based Biofusion plans to release the kit in January 2006. Evening primrose oil, pressed from the flower's seeds, is rich in gamma-linolenic acid, a substance that a new study in the Journal of the National Cancer Institute found inhibits a gene that causes nearly 30% of breast-cancer cases In some insect species, headless males make better lovers! One type of praying mantis, the mantis religiosa , engages in a very interesting mating ritual: During mating, the female can decide to rip off the male's head, which would result in more vigorous thrusting activity in the male. This is because a nerve center in the brain inhibits sexual behavior in the male until he has firmly grasped the female from the back. Once the head is gone, no more inhibiting signals can come from the brain, and you have one passionate praying mantis lover! Like all orange-pigmented vegetables, pumpkins are rich in beta carotene, the plant form of vitamin A. One cup of canned or baked pumpkin provides about 1,260 RE of beta carotene, more than a carrot. Studies have shown that this antioxidant may help prevent some forms of cancer. Pumpkins are also low-caloric (unless you make a sugar-rich pumpkin pie), a rich source of iron, potassium, and fiber. And although the seeds are often thrown away, they are actually a good source of protein, iron, zinc, B and E vitamins, and fiber. Ovarian cancer is the most fatal gynecological malignancy and there is no good screening test for it. Reproductive factors such as childbearing, hysterectomy, and tubal ligation have been shown to decrease the risk but they are not always within a woman's control. A recent study shows that taking oral contraceptive pills offers significant protection against ovarian cancer, but it is not clear whether this protection also covers women with a genetic predisposition to ovarian cancer. When fabric gets wet, light coming towards it refracts within the water, dispersing the light. In addition, the surface of the water causes incoherent light scattering. The combination of these two effects causes less light to reflect to your eyes and makes the wet fabric appear darker. Why does water not calm the tongue after eating hot spicy food? The spices in most of the hot foods that we eat are oily, and, like your elementary school science teacher taught you, oil and water don't mix. In this case, the water just rolls over the oily spices. What can you do to calm your aching tongue? Eat bread. The bread will absorb the oily spices. A second solution is to drink milk. Milk contains a substance called "casein" which will bind to the spices and carry them away. Alcohol also dissolves oily spices. In ancient times, it was believed that certain colours could combat the evil spirits that lingered over nurseries. Because blue was associated with the heavenly spirits, boys were clothed in that colour, boys then being considered the most valuable resource to parents. Although baby girls did not have a colour associated with them, they were mostly clothed in black. It was only in the Middle Ages when pink became associated with baby girls. People with high IQs tend to be nearsighted. This is NOT because they read a lot, or stare at the computer screen too much. That common sense hypothesis has been discredited by research. Rather, the gene(s) that tend to elevate IQ also tend to affect the shape of the eyeball. This is likely to be completely accidental, a quirk of evolution. Mosquitoes are most active at dawn and dusk, so it is particularly important to use mosquito repellent during that period of the day. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention is recommending two new repellents that may be just as effective as DEET. The CDC says oil of lemon eucalyptus and picaridin work at least as well as equivalent concentrations of DEET, the active ingredient in most bug sprays. It's well-known that new mothers can get the baby blues, but fathers can also suffer from postnatal depression - and having a despondent dad early in life can leave long-lasting psychological marks on children. It has been consistently agreed upon that breastfeeding can strenghten a newborn's immune system. Because the baby's immune system is not yet mature, breast milk is an important source of antibodies. A new study shows yet another benefit for the baby to drink breast milk: Children who are breastfed are about fifty percent less likely to be short sighted. Docosahexaenoic acid or DHA, a substance found in breast milk, could be the main element that improves early visual development in babies, resulting in more ordered eyeball growth which then reduces the development or severity of myopia. While the memory of a lobster-like burn may remind people to slather on sunscreen, many may be unaware of the damage ultraviolet (UV) light can inflict on the eyes. there is growing evidence that UV exposure over time can lead to a number of eye disorders and even vision loss. Outdoor enthusiasts should invest in a quality pair of sunglasses, and a wide-brimmed hat for good measure. The Nobel Prize-winning chemist Linus Pauling published a book in the 1970s on the prevention of the common cold with vitamin C supplements. However, the latest verdict about vitamin C supplements disagrees with Pauling's theory. However, while vitamin C does nothing to prevent the common cold, it may shorten the cold's duration. It is advised to take 8 grams of vitamin C at the very first sign of a cold. People who savor their soft drinks may save their teeth some wear and tear by using a strategically placed straw, according to a new report. In excess, carbonated beverages, like other acidic drinks, can wear away the protective enamel on teeth, leading to tooth decay. While going easy on carbonated beverages is the best way to prevent tooth erosion, sipping them through a straw may offer some added protection. The key, say dentists at Temple University in Philadelphia, is to place the straw near the back of the mouth so that the teeth aren't bathed in soda with every sip. More than 90 per cent of American children play video games every day, and half of the top sellers contain extreme violence. There is now strong evidence that people who play violent games tend to be more aggressive. But finding out whether it is the games that make them violent or the violence that attracts them to the games has proved much harder. Using pedometers, researchers found that the average Amish man took 18,425 steps a day and the average Amish woman took 14,196 steps. A typical American, by contrast, takes about 5,000 steps. Men could be rewarded with a better heart and healthier arteries if they donate blood on a regular basis! A study done at the Kansas University Medical Center suggests that in addition to estrogen, the monthly loss of blood may protect menstruating women from heart disease. It is thought that the regular elimination of iron, which acts as a catalyst in cholesterol oxidation, is the contributing factor. Cholesterol is already a mild irritant for the arteries, but oxidized cholesterol is just a really nasty irritant! So for men and post-menopausal women, eliminating excess iron by donating blood regularly is shooting two birds with one stone! Meat and poultry cooked on a grill often browns very fast on the outside. The only way to ensure that meats are cooked to a safe temperature is by using a metal probe-type thermometer that you can put into the center of the food to check if it is done. Meat and poultry must be cooked to the following internal temperatures to ensure safety: •  Ground Meat 70 C (160 F) •  Whole chicken/turkey 82 C (180 F) •  Chicken/turkey pieces 77 C (170 F) •  Ground Poultry 72 C (165 F) Product formulations for eye creams don't differ from those for face products. It only takes a quick look at the ingredient labels of any moisturizer or eye moisturizer to see that they don't differ except for the price and the tiny containers the eye creams come in. Moreover, you're putting your skin at risks of sun damage and wrinkling by using eye creams during the day since most of them do not contain sunscreen. The caterpillar fungus is a traditional medicine that has been widely used as a tonic and/or medicine by the Chinese for hundreds of years. The use of this fungus was relatively unknown in the West until it was credited for the success of Chinese women athletes at the National Games in Beijing, in 1993. Three Chinese track runners set new world records during the Games at three different distances, 10,000 m, 15,000 m and 30,000 m. Their coach, Ma Zunren, attributed the runner's success to intensive training as well as a stress-relieving tonic prepared from the caterpillar fungus. Scientists say the magical mushroom relaxes an athlete's airway. That makes it easier for athletes to breathe while they are running which means they are using less energy. The fungus also helps reduce blood pressure and stop coughing. Spit may be on its way to becoming a new diagnostic tool. Researchers have discovered that our saliva contains more major proteins than originally assumed. Instead of the dreaded needle, patients may only need to lick a sample strip or spit in a cup, making the testing safer and cheaper. Already, tests for female fertility and alcohol levels have been approved. Our dandruff may contribute to the Earth's climate. An atmospheric physicist, in Germany has sampled the suspended contents of the atmosphere in different regions around the world, and learned that organic detritus, which includes human and animal skin constituents, fur, pollen and other plant components, bacteria, and the like, made up 25% of the atmospheric particles. These help in the formation of rain and cloud, by serving as the nuclei for ice crystals, in turn affecting the reflection and absorption of the sun's radiation. Female garter snakes are not interested in the mating ritual that is forced upon them by their male counterparts. Hundreds of thousands of these snakes may live within one den; upon the conclusion of hibernation, the den is pursued by an ambush of males, leaving some females no choice but to yield to them. By coating the females with a pheromone that repelled the males, an Australian researcher gave the females the option to wait to receive a mate. However, as if trying to avoid an oncoming predator, they did not hesitate in taking the opportunity to escape, mate or no mate! A new and simple method can be employed by physicians to determine which side of the brain you are using. All that is required is measuring the temperature of the inner ear. It is known that the blood in the brain is warmer than that which is entering it through the carotid artery. Therefore, when the left side of the brain, which is linked to our language production and comprehension– as opposed to more abstract thought processed by the right side – is stimulated to perform a computation, the blood flow will increase to that side of the brain while simultaneously cooling the inner membrane of the left ear. For that reason, a drop in the temperature indicates the use of that side of the brain. Sugarless yogurt may be a solution to fighting your bad breath. Bad breath can be caused by several factors, one of them being a waste product of the bacteria that live in our mouths, the major one being hydrogen sulfide. The yogurt, which is also composed of bacteria – particularly, Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus bulgaricus – has been shown to assist the elimination of this compound. Furthermore, it may help prevent nasty gum disease and plaque! Men seem to impose a threat to women's problem-solving capacities. A study has demonstrated that women who write math exams in the absence of men improve their score, as the number of men in the room decreases. The theory behind this is that, because math has been considered a stereotypic subject, where males are deemed to perform better than females, women suffer from anxiety related to the reminder of this stereotype. This leads to a lack of concentration, and, thus, poorer results. So, to those girls out there who want to get an A on that math exam, maybe you should consider writing it in environment devoid of the opposite sex. We can learn a lot about eating habits from carnivorous spiders and predator insects. A recent study has suggested that these small creatures actually bear in mind their previous intake when contemplating their next meal. Though it is tempting to assume that predators eat whatever they can catch, it so happens that when there has been an excess in one nutrient, the creature chooses to follow it up with sustenance that helps maintain a nutritional balance. Even carnivores such as the wolf spider, which relies on approaching prey, rather than hunting, are still capable of extracting the appropriate nutrients that they need most. For centuries the wedding ring has been taken to represent endless love and an eternal union between two people, and now tissue engineers are striving to make this symbol even more striking, by creating a way of constructing these rings from your partner's bone. The technique involves extracting bone cells from each individual and colonizing them in a ring-shaped scaffold structure, then to be refined by a jeweler. What could be more romantic?! Nutritional intake plays a role in the well-being of skin. As seen through their deficiencies, vitamins, minerals, and essential fatty acids are important. Nutritional benefits have been investigated with the aim of preventing diseases like cancer, heart disease, and depression, and researchers are now searching for ways that diet can put off the skin's loss of stretch, onset of wrinkles and sagginess that come with age. You should listen to your dentist. Brushing your teeth has the potential of saving your life! Although the mechanisms are not completely understood, there is a correlation between the amounts of bacteria causing gum disease and carotid artery thickness, which is requisite for atherosclerosis, leading to heart attacks. The working hypothesis is that the bacteria in the mouth enter the circulation, and, thus, travel down toward the heart, where an inflammatory immune response may be triggered. With all the mediators and chemicals involved, clogging of the arteries results. It has been long observed that in order for males to entice the opposite sex, they must offer something in exchange. The obvious situation would be that a female would opt for a companion bearing the most valuable gift – for example, a rare seed. However, researchers have found that some insects, such as dance flies, do not follow this rule of thumb. Just as many females will actually accept gifts of no use, like a piece of a twig or cotton. The reasoning behind this appears to be that the effort and strength that could be put into fighting off other males for the finest offering, is conserved and can act as an advantage in reproduction. This works so well for some of them that it looks as if some males have developed tactics where they successfully submit fake gifts. The UK spends £700 million every year to help control those nasty bed-mates that thrive off of our dead skin scales. They are known to multiply to numbers as high as 1.5 million in one mattress, triggering asthma and other allergic attacks. While preventive methods have included insecticides that result in resistance, news on how to kick out the bed-mites without chemicals has been revealed. Two pieces of advice: sleep in, and don't make the bed! Staying in bed longer increases the temperature high enough to make the mites uncomfortable and, by making the bed, you are trapping in humidity, providing them with a method for their daily water intake. Some like it hot – really hot! In environments as hot as 121 oC, a temperature previously thought to kill all living creatures and presently used for sterilization, a newly found strain of microbe, Strain 121, is found to thrive. How the DNA of the microbe is able to withstand such heat is still baffling scientists. Cultured from hydrothermal vents, the microbe derives its energy with assistance from iron, thus making it difficult to grow in a laboratory. Estimating their origin to be close to 3.5 billion years ago, it is hoped to clarify what genetic adaptations were necessary to permit the microbe to endure such conditions. While the city night-life, with glowing buildings, establishes a striking setting for any evening event, it presents a perilous situation for migrating birds. An estimated 100 million birds are killed every year, disillusioned by the lights and reflections projected from tall buildings – some killing as many as 200 birds a day! Whereas the main cause of death is the collision of the birds to the window, some birds are attracted to the light and fly until exhaustion. To curtail the casualties, bird-friendly organizations, such as FLAP, are encouraging offices to limit night light. Bugs play an important role in defending our environment. Styrene, a toxic chemical used in the fabrication of plastics, is produced in massive amounts by the chemical industry. It is known to cause much harm, such as dizziness, brain and liver damage and, at high doses, genetic damage and, possibly, even cancer. A free-living bacterium, pseudomonas putida, known for its ability to metabolize a large range of carbon sources, has shown a capacity to convert styrene into biodegradable polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA). The product of these bacteria can then be used in making plastic cutlery, cups, and the like. Aloe has been found to possess more benefits than first thought. That is, it may have the potential to save the lives, for example, of soldiers in the battlefield, when blood transfusions are not immediately at hand. Loss of blood leads to hemorrhagic shock, characterized by lack of oxygen reaching vital organs. Aloe contains carbohydrate polymers that, when combined with plasma, improve oxygen diffusion from red blood cells to tissues. By decreasing the resistance of the blood, the cells can approach the walls of the capillaries with better proximity. This discovery may provide soldiers with the essential time to reach proper care facilities. The saying “you are what you eat” may take on a more literal meaning for the South American frog species, Phyllobates , known for their ability to secrete the steroid alkaloid, batrachotoxin, one of the most potent and deadly venoms known. How the frogs acquire batrachotoxin has been a mystery for some time, but research now suggests that it stems from the diet of these frogs: a species of beetles coated with it. The toxin initiates the opening of channels in the brain, causing the release of the neurotransmitter, acetylcholine, leading to a cascade of events that result in blocking the signals that allow muscle relaxation. Purkinje cells of the heart are particularly sensitive, consequently, triggering ventricular fibrillation, and death. If you suffer from allergies, there is hope that you will, one day soon, be able to be a cat-owner. The company Allerca has used gene silencing techniques to develop a breed of cats that will fail to translate the proteins found in their skin and saliva that are responsible for triggering allergic reactions in humans. The cats will be available as of the year 2007, but you'll have to dig deep into your pockets, for the cats will come at a cost of $3,500. Many dieters have taken to the habit of chewing gum to curb their appetite between meals – more than 80 million American dollars are spent each year on gum – but this actually has conflicting consequences. Because chewing is the first step in the digestive process, it triggers salivary glands to secrete certain enzymes to accomplish the task. One of these is ptyalin is known activate hunger cues. The price that we have paid to make available larger and longer-lasting strawberries has led to the dissipation of their true taste. Researchers have found that such strawberries do not produce the same flavor compounds as their wild counterparts. There is no need to worry, however, for this is soon to be corrected. The genes responsible for the enzymes, underlying the strawberry taste, in particular 4-hydroxy-2,5-dimethyl-3(2H)-furanone, have been distinguished and are intended to be used to create an especially mouth-watering new variety of strawberries! Marilyn Monroe suffered from endometriosis, a relatively common disease caused by the presence of endometrial cells outside the uterus. These cells swell and bleed during menstruation, causing much pain and sometimes leading to infertility. Cells usually implant on the ovaries or fallopian tubes, and other organs in the pelvic cavity. In very rare cases, however, endometrial cells can be found as far from the uterus as the lungs: this can lead to coughing up blood during menstruation. About 10% of men are color-blind. Usually, this is due to the lack of one, though in rare cases two, of the three (red, green, and yellow) photoreceptors, ‘cones,' used by the human eye to detect the colors of light. Though a deceiving term, color-blindness is not the inability to perceive all color, but the failure to differentiate one specific color from another – commonly red from green. Without the necessary three cones, a deficiency in the number of possible colors identified results. Close to 70% of Canadians need a dose of coffee to start their day, and it has now been confirmed that the popular stimulant is highly addictive. Many coffee drinkers experience headaches and even symptoms similar to flu – nausea, muscle aches and pains – when they abstain from their fix, yet the thought of refraining to drink the stuff is unquestionable. A true description of an addict? Some researchers go so far as to aim to have this dependence diagnosed as a mental disorder! It is a common misconception that flavoring milk with chocolate counteracts the effects of calcium. It is true that chocolate contains oxalic acid, which when mingled with calcium produces calcium oxalate – a chemical which cannot be absorbed by the intestine – but the amount of calcium present in the milk far exceeds that of oxalic acid. Thus, there is enough calcium left over to be absorbed and processed by your body. So go ahead and replenish your calcium stores while simultaneously satisfying your sweet- tooth. A 2002 study found that more than 50% of college students had undergone body piercing; 23% of them had complications. And tongue splitting, is the body-mode statement du jour. And it's not just rebellious… it's hard to reverse. For diabetics, three target levels are must-know: 1) A1C: less than 7%, 2)Blood pressure: lower than 135/80 and 3) LDL cholesterol: lower than 100. Meditation is now offered in schools, hospitals, law firms, corporate offices, airports and prisons. Ten million Americans now say they practice some form of meditation regularly. This new “pop trend” is being recommended by more and more physicians as a way to prevent, slow or at least control stress and the diseases it can lead to, as well as relieve the pain of chronic heart conditions, AIDS, cancer and infertility. During the Second World War, a psychiatrist concluded that showers and ice cream were an effective treatment for combat fatigue. Ice cream, he said, reminded soldiers of home. In army camps it quickly became a staple at Sunday dinner and the Navy commissioned the first floating ice cream plant, a barge that produced 5100 gallons an hour. But airmen had to improvise. Some of these guys stationed in Britain placed ice cream mix in large cans in the tail gunner's compartment of bombers where the plane's vibrations and cold temperatures yielded a velvety product. According to legend, one of these clever chaps was Irv Robbins. And the rest, as they say, is history. Smoking more than triples a woman's chances of having a heart attack. If you quit, that risk is cut in half within two years; after 10 years, the odds return to nearly normal. Blueberries are the newest stars in the dietary sky. They are very rich in antioxidants, compounds that fight free-radical damage linked to heart disease and cancer. They also seem the fight urinary-tract infections. And they make lab rats smarter! Of course to get the health benefits from blueberries they have to be eaten regularly. A half a cup a day would be meaningful. But a blueberry muffin will not do the trick. Breast-feeding a baby for up to 12 months has been shown to be beneficial for both the mother and the baby. But it also turns out that nursing a baby longer may increase your tot's chances of getting into Harvard. Adults who as babies were breast-fed for seven to nine months had in average 6 points higher IQs than those who were breast-fed for two weeks or less. A long chain of polyunsaturated acid known as DHA that is found in human milk, but not in infant formula or cow's milk, is most likely the component that makes babies so smart. It either protects the baby's central nervous system, or stimulates its development. Vitamin B12 - found in fish, meat, poultry, and dairy products - is necessary for the body's manufacturing of monoamines, a shortage of which has been associated with depression. B12 deficiency may also result in the accumulation of homocysteine, another possible cause of depressive symptoms. Finnish, Dutch and American researchers have reported in the past two years that people with depression respond better to traditional treatments if they have high concentrations of vitamin B12 in their blood. It is possible that the use of vitamin B supplements might help to prevent depressive symptoms in cases of low intake of these vitamins. Lycopene, an antioxidant giving tomatoes their signature colour may not be solely responsible for the fruit's protective effects against prostate cancer. A recent study showed that rats fed tomato powder had 30% reduced chance of getting prostate cancer, while those fed lycopene supplements only showed no risk reduction. Other tomato phytochemicals may act in concert with lycopene to mediate health benefits. A German chemist named Liebig discovered that the residue yeast leftover after the brewing process could be further digested resulting in a thick, dark-brown sludge. In 1902 it was named “Marmite” after the French marmite which means a cauldron or cooking pot. Marmite and other yeast spreads (Vegemite) are rich in niacin, B vitamins and folic acid. Today Marmite remains a favoured toast spread in British homes. An estimated 1 % of Americans have latex allergies. Latex, the milky fluid produced by the rubber tree, is molded by dipping a heated form into the liquid and pealing off the resulting shape (a glove for instance). Dip-molded latex products such as condoms and gloves are likely to cause contact allergies from close exposure to the proteins present in natural latex. Alternative materials include nitrile, polyurethane, polyvinyl chloride and synthetic latex. Capsaicin, the chemical compound responsible for making red peppers hot can be used to reduce the neuropathic pain felt by HIV infected patients. Subjects who had a capsaicin-based cream on their feet for one hour subsequently reported a 50% decrease in pain. What makes hot peppers so hot? Capsaicin. This chemical compound is so fiery chemists handling it must cover themselves head to toe to avoid being burned. Milk is the best antidote for a flaming mouth. It contains the protein casein which strips capsaicin from nerve receptors. Salmonella poisoning from eggs is a real concern causing an estimated 350 deaths and 700,000 cases of food poisoning every year in North America. To prevent multiplication of the salmonella bacterium, the internal temperature of an egg should be kept below 4.4 degrees Celsius (40 degrees F). This is almost impossible in the fridge door and certainly impossible in a cupboard. The best place is in the original carton at the back of a shelf in the fridge. Eggs should be used within a month. Beans have been called the “musical food” because of their propensity to produce gas. That's because we lack an enzyme needed to digest some of the carbohydrates in beans. Microbes in our intestines can, however, digest them. Unfortunately, when the bugs eat the beans they produce gas which eventually has to make a more or less dramatic exit. Scientists have, however, successfully isolated the required enzyme (available as “Beano”) which can be added to the first mouthful of beans to reduce the problem. And it's a good thing because beans are great. They are an outstanding source of flavonoids which can protect against cancer and heart disease! Nystatin is an antifungal drug that was first isolated from Streptomyces bacteria in New York State, hence the name. It is commonly used in the treatment of various yeast infections. There have been suggestions that autism may be linked to yeast infections and that in some cases nystatin may be an appropriate treatment. Around 650 AD, the emperor of China began to issue paper "value tokens" for general use. As Marco Polo reported enthusiastically in 1275, "I tell you that people are glad to take these tokens, because wherever they go in the empire of the great Khan, they can use them to buy and sell as if they were pure gold". Europeans had to wait until the 17th century when Sweden took the lead in issuing paper currency. Other countries gradually followed the Swedish example. Penicillin was a chance discovery made by Alexander Fleming while studying bacterial growth. His plate of Staphylococcus aureus became accidentally contaminated with the mould Penicillium notatum, which caused the bacteria to lyse (burst) and die. Fleming concluded that this mould could be used in the treatment of bacterial infections, and the idea of “antibiotics” was born. Morphine is the oldest and still the best drug for intense pain. It is found in opium, an exudate of a species of poppy. In 1806, the German chemist Serturner successfully isolated pure morphine from opium and thereby greatly facilitated the treatment of pain. Proper doses of morphine could now be weighed out and administered. Today, morphine is still isolated from specially grown poppies because its complex molecular structure precludes synthesis. There are, however, synthetic morphine-like drugs available which were designed with the hope of maintaining morphine’s pain-killing ability and eliminating its potential for addiction. So far, these synthetic derivatives have all shown some addictive potential. Gold is so malleable that a chunk the size of a small matchbox can be beaten into foil that can cover a tennis court. Barbiturates were first synthesized by the German chemist Adolf von Baeyer and since 1900 over 2000 different barbiturates have been made. If you don't eat breakfast you are more likely to become insulin resistant and obese in the long run. People who eat out more than 13 times a month consume about 30% more calories than people who eat fewer than five times a month. Deodorants contain fragrances that mask the sweat smell as well as anibacterial agents that control the growth of bacteria on the skin. Antisperirants, however, contain aluminum compounds that forminsoluble gels on the skin and plug up pores, reducing the amount of sweat that makes it to the surface. Lead is toxic, because of its chemical resemblance to calcium. Calcium is essential for myriad biochemichal reactions in the body and it's one of the main building blocks of bone. When lead is present in the system, the body can mistake it for calcium. Aluminum contamination from canned drinks does not cause Alzheimer’s disease. Biotechnology is the provision of useful products and services from biological processes. It goes back thousands of years. Biotechnology probably began the first time someone used yeast and sugar to convert sugars and starches to alcohol. Science is not a collection of facts. It is an ongoing process that attempts to remain in step with the latest research. That is why scientists sometimes change their minds. There are different types of cholesterols. The LDL cholesterol, the so-called bad cholesterol, causes deposits to form in the arteries and triggers heart attacks. By contrast, HDL, high density lipoprotein, scavenges cholesterol from the blood and prevents its deposition. Natural gas is actually methane and methane does not smell. That’s why odiferous compounds are added to make sure that gas leaks are readily detected.

© 2010 Department of Chemistry McGill University